The term “church government” (or “ecclesiastical polity”) refers to the leadership structure of a local church or denomination. Most churches today fall into one of three types of church government – Episcopalian, Presbyterian, and Congregational.

Churches with an Episcopal structure are governed by bishops, who have authority over the clergy of one or more churches (or a diocese). These bishops are often subject to higher-ranking church officials, such as archbishops, metropolitan bishops, or patriarchs. Denominations with an Episcopalian structure include Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox churches, as well as some Lutherans, Methodists, and Pentecostals.

Churches with a Presbyterian structure are governed by councils. The lowest council, that of the local church, is called a session; and its members are elected by the congregation. Representatives of the session are sent to the next higher council, which is called a presbytery. Representatives of each presbytery are sent to a synod, and eventually to the General Assembly. This type of church government is found in many Presbyterian and Reformed churches.

Churches with a Congregational structure are governed by the congregation. Local churches are usually autonomous and self-governing. They choose their own pastor(s), elders, board, and other leaders. These churches may be part of an association, but the association does not have authority over the churches. This leadership structure is found most notably among Baptists as well as in many nondenominational and free churches.

What did the early Christians say?

The “correct” form of church government is strongly debated today; yet in the early church, it was rarely discussed. It simply wasn’t an issue. The apostles handed down a very simple leadership structure that the early Christians followed without complaint. Their emphasis was not on the structure of the church but on following Jesus’ commands, remaining faithful to the apostolic doctrines, and teaching others to do the same.

Nevertheless, the early Christians did have a system of church leadership, but it was much different – and much simpler – than any of the systems outlined above. Many of the terms they used are similar but had vastly different meanings, as their understanding was based on the simple teachings of Scripture rather than manmade systems that were developed over hundreds of years.

Church leadership in the New Testament

The New Testament establishes a very simple, 2-fold system of church leadership: bishops and deacons (Philippians 1:1; 1 Timothy 3:1-13). The Greek word for “bishop” is episkopos, meaning “overseer.” In the New Testament, the words “bishop” and “elder” (Greek presbyteros) are often used interchangeably (Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5-7; 1 Peter 5:1-2).

From the New Testament, it seems that the primary responsibilities of the bishop were prayer and teaching, while the deacons were to attend to physical matters (see the qualification “able to teach” for the bishop in 1 Timothy 3:2 and the responsibility of deacons to serve tables and care for widows, freeing the apostles to pray and teach, in Acts 6:1-4). Clement of Alexandria made reference to this division of duties:

• “In the church, the elders attend to the ministry that has improvement [of the flock] for its object; the deacons attend to the physical things.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)

The apostles themselves appointed bishops of area churches:

• “[Clement of Alexandria] says that Peter, James, and John (after the Savior’s ascension), although preeminently honored by the Lord, did not contend for glory. Rather, they appointed James the Just to be bishop of Jerusalem.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195), as cited by Eusebius
• “John [the Apostle] returned to Ephesus from the isle of Patmos. He then traveled to the adjoining territories of the nations, being invited, here to appoint bishops, there to set in order whole churches, there to ordain such men as were marked out by the Spirit.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “Polycarp too was instructed by apostles, and he spoke with many who had seen Christ. Furthermore, the apostles in Asia appointed him bishop of the church in Smyrna.” – Irenaeus (c. 180)
• “Our apostles also knew, through our Lord Jesus Christ, that there would be strife on account of the office of oversight [bishop]. For this reason, therefore, inasmuch as they had obtained a perfect foreknowledge of this, they appointed those already mentioned. Afterwards, they gave instructions that when those men should fall asleep, other approved men should succeed them in their ministry.” – Clement of Rome (c. 96)

The early Christians consistently followed this 2-fold system of church leadership throughout the first century:

• “Therefore, appoint for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord.” – Didache (c. 50-120)
• “Preaching throughout countries and cities, the apostles appointed the first-fruits of their labors to be bishops and deacons of those who would believe afterwards. However, they first tested them by the Spirit. This was no new thing. Indeed, many ages before, it had been written concerning bishops and deacons. For the Scriptures say in a certain place, ‘I will appoint their bishops in righteousness and their deacons in faith’ [Isa. 60:17].” – Clement of Rome (c. 96)

Church leadership in the early church

Around the year 100, a new system of leadership began to emerge – a 3-fold system of bishops, deacons, and presbyters:

• “I exhort you to study to do all things with a divine harmony, while your bishop presides in the place of God, and your presbyters in the place of the assembly of the apostles, along with your deacons.” – Ignatius (c. 105)
• “Let the presbyters be compassionate and merciful to all, bringing back those who wander, visiting all the sick, and not neglecting the widow, the orphan, or the poor.” – Polycarp (c. 135)
• “It is necessary to obey the presbyters who are in the church – those who, as I have shown, possess the succession from the apostles. For they are those who, together with the succession of the bishops, have received the certain gift of truth, according to the good pleasure of the Father.” – Irenaeus (c. 180)
• “Innumerable commands like these are written in the Holy Scriptures, pertaining to chosen persons: some to presbyters, some to bishops, some to deacons.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “Paul himself has laid our foundation, that is, the foundation of the church. And he has put us in trust of the law – ordaining deacons, presbyters, and bishops.” – Disputation of Archelaus and Manes (c. 320)

Many large cities had multiple congregations of believers who met in several different house churches. Each congregation had its own elders (presbyters) and deacons, while one bishop was appointed over the entire city. This 3-fold system of church government began around AD 100 and was universal by AD 250. While this leadership structure is not discussed in Scripture, it may have been introduced by the Apostle John, as its roots are seen in the churches of Asia Minor where John ministered during his final years.

Election or appointment?

Initially, bishops were appointed by the apostles. Acts 14:23 says that Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders . . . in every church.” According to the above quotations, the apostles appointed James bishop of Jerusalem and Polycarp bishop of Smyrna, and John later traveled from city to city to appoint bishops. Later, bishops were appointed by other bishops. In Titus 1:5, Paul asked Titus, who was likely the bishop at Crete, to appoint elders (bishops) in surrounding cities (Titus 1:5).

Deacons were chosen by the congregation (Acts 6:1-6), and the congregation may have had a part in choosing bishops as well, even though they were officially appointed by other church leaders:

• “Therefore, appoint for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord.” – Didache (c. 50-120)
• “Cornelius was made bishop [of Rome] by the judgment of God and of His Christ. This was by the testimony of almost all the clergy, by the election of the people who were then present, and by the assembly of [older bishops] and good men.” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “This very thing, too, we observe to come from divine authority, that the priest [presbyter] should be chosen in the presence of the people under the eyes of all, and should be approved worthy and suitable by public judgment and testimony.” – Cyprian (c. 250)

Bishops and deacons were chosen by prayer and the leading of the Holy Spirit:

• “John . . . ordain[ed] such men as were marked out by the Spirit.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “Preaching throughout countries and cities, the apostles appointed the first-fruits of their labors to be bishops and deacons of those who would believe afterwards. However, they first tested them by the Spirit.” – Clement of Rome (c. 96)
• “Those who are called by us bishops, presbyters, and deacons were made such by prayer and by the laying on of hands.” – Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390)

Qualifications of a church leader

In 1 Timothy, Paul outlined clear qualifications for bishops and deacons:

• “An overseer [bishop] must be above reproach, the husband of one wife, sober-minded, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach, not a drunkard, not violent but gentle, not quarrelsome, not a lover of money. He must manage his own household well, with all dignity keeping his children submissive. . . . He must not be a recent convert, or he may become puffed up with conceit and fall into the condemnation of the devil. Moreover, he must be well thought of by outsiders, so that he may not fall into disgrace, into a snare of the devil. Deacons likewise must be dignified, not double-tongued, not addicted to much wine, not greedy for dishonest gain. They must hold the mystery of the faith with a clear conscience. And let them also be tested first; then let them serve as deacons if they prove themselves blameless. Their wives likewise must be dignified, not slanderers, but sober-minded, faithful in all things. Let deacons each be the husband of one wife, managing their children and their own households well.” – 1 Timothy 3:2-13

Some of these qualifications are overlooked in today’s churches, yet the early Christians understood their importance:

• “Therefore, appoint for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord – men who are meek, not lovers of money, truthful, and tested; for they also render to you the service of prophets and teachers. Do not look down on them, for they are to be honored among you with the prophets and teachers.” – Didache (c. 50-130)
• “The apostle bids that such persons should be teachers: let him be a patient ruler, let him know when he may relax the reins, let him terrify at first and then anoint with honey, and let him be the first to practice what he teaches.” – Commodianus (c. 240)
• “Among the characteristic qualifications of those who are called ‘bishops,’ Paul . . . lays down as a qualification that he should be able to convince those who contradict. . . . And he selects for the episcopate a man who has been once married – rather than he who has twice entered into the married state. Also, he must be a man of blameless life, rather than one who is liable to rebuke.” – Origen (c. 248)
• “We should choose no one but unstained and upright ministers. In that way, the ministers who offer sacrifices to God with holy and worthy hands may be heard in the prayers that they make for the safety of the Lord’s people.” – Cyprian (c. 250)

As seen in the quotation from Origen, the earliest Christians believed that church leaders could be married. (The deviation into ministerial celibacy had its roots in the third century.)

• “I am greatly grieved for Valens, who was once a presbyter among you. . . . I am deeply grieved, therefore, brethren, for him and his wife. May the Lord grant true repentance to them.” – Polycarp (c. 135)
• “Paul completely approves of the man who is the husband of one wife – whether he is a bishop, presbyter, deacon, or laymen – so long as he conducts his marriage beyond reproach.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)

Training of church leaders

The early Christians had no theological education beyond the plain teachings of Jesus and the apostles. As a result, their church leaders did not attend theological schools or have advanced degrees. Rather, they were trained in character as they grew up in the church and learned from those who were older, wiser, and more godly. Because church leaders were not outsiders but had grown up within the church, the people were familiar with their strengths, weaknesses, and character:

• “The tried men of our elders preside over us, obtaining that honor not by purchase, but by established character.” – Tertullian (c. 195)
• “A bishop is . . . approved by the testimony and judgment of his colleagues and the people.” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “How can he who is himself unclean, and in whom the Holy Spirit does not dwell, cleanse and sanctify the water [of baptism]? For the Lord says in the book of Numbers, ‘And whatever the unclean person touches will be unclean’ [Num. 17:22]. . . . After all, what prayer can a priest [presbyter] who is impious and is a sinner offer for a baptized person? For it is written, ‘God does not hear a sinner’ [John 9:31]. . . . Who can give what he himself does not have? How can he discharge spiritual functions who himself has lost the Holy Spirit?” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “As to anyone who teaches principles to live by and molds the character of others, I ask: is he not obligated himself to live by the principles he teaches? If he himself does not live by them, his teaching is nullified. [His student] answers his teacher in this manner: ‘I am not able to do the things you command, for they are impossible. You forbid me to be angry, you forbid me to covet, you forbid me to lust, and you forbid me to fear pain and death. This is totally contrary to nature, because all living creatures are subject to these emotions. If you are so convinced that it is possible to live contrary to nature, first let me see you practice the things you teach so that I will know they are possible.’ . . . How will the teacher take away this excuse from the self-willed unless he teaches them by his example, so they can see with their own eyes that the things he teaches are possible? For this very reason, no one obeys the teachings of the philosophers. Men prefer examples to words; for it is easy to speak, but difficult to act.” – Lactantius (c. 304-313)

Authority of church leaders

Authority is instituted by God; and as such, church leaders are to be honored and respected:

• “My child, remember day and night the one who speaks to you the word of God. Honor him as you would honor the Lord; for where His Lordship is taught, the Lord is present.” – Didache (c. 50-120)
• “Let us honor those who have the rule over us.” – Clement of Rome (c. 96)
• “Let everyone reverence the deacons as an appointment of Jesus Christ; and the bishop as Jesus Christ, who is the Son of the Father; and the presbyters as the Sanhedrin of God and assembly of the apostles. Apart from these, there is no church.” – Ignatius (c. 105)
• “If the prayer of one or two persons possesses such power, how much more will that of the bishop and the whole church! . . . Therefore, in order that we may be subject to God, let us be careful not to set ourselves in opposition to the bishop. . . . It is clear, therefore, that we should look upon the bishop even as we would upon the Lord Himself.” – Ignatius (c. 105)
• “It is necessary to . . . [be] subject to the presbyters and deacons, as unto God and Christ.” – Polycarp (c. 135)

Even though the bishop and deacons were in positions of authority, the early Christians regarded them as the first among equals. Jesus taught that Christians were to view positions of authority not as opportunities to control others but rather as opportunities to serve: “You know that the rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great ones exercise authority over them. It shall not be so among you. But whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be your slave” (Matthew 20:25-27).

Many of the early Christian writers were themselves bishops – including Clement of Rome (Rome), Ignatius (Antioch), Polycarp (Smyrna), Irenaeus (Lyons), and Cyprian (Carthage). Yet they realized that their positions of authority came with a great expectation of humility and service:

• “I do not issue orders to you, as though I were some great person. . . . For now I begin to be a disciple, and I speak to you as fellow disciples with me.” – Ignatius (c. 105)
• “I do not, as Peter and Paul, issue commandments to you. They were apostles.” – Ignatius (c. 105)
• “We . . . do not impose a law upon anyone. For each prelate has in the administration of the church the exercise of his free will, for he will give an account of his conduct to the Lord.” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “Peter – whom the Lord chose first and upon whom He built His church – did not insolently claim anything to himself. Nor did he arrogantly assume anything when Paul later disputed with him about circumcision. He did not say that he held the primacy and that he needed to be obeyed by novices and those lately come.” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “It remains that upon this same matter each of us should bring forward what we think – judging no man. Nor should we reject anyone from the right of communion if he should think differently from us. For none of us sets himself up as a bishop of bishops. Nor by tyrannical terror does anyone compel his colleague to the necessity of obedience. For every bishop – according to the allowance of his liberty and power – has his own proper right of judgment. He can no more be judged by another than he himself can judge another. Rather, let us all wait for the judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ.” – Cyprian (c. 256)

During the first few centuries of Christianity, bishops began to forget their position as first among equals, gravitating towards more power and authority. Many bishops of larger cities clamored for jurisdiction over smaller cities, eventually creating a hierarchy that was never intended by Jesus and the apostles. This hierarchy eventually became an integral part of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Support of church leaders

In the early days of Christianity, church leaders were expected to give up secular jobs and devote all of their time to the work of Christ’s kingdom. However, the churches did not pay their leaders a middle-class salary such as many pastors receive today. Rather, the church leaders took a small portion from the offerings that were given to support widows and orphans. As a result, the leaders typically lived near poverty level, as they were not lovers of money (1 Timothy 3) and desired to care for as many orphans and widows as possible. The heretical groups paid salaries to their leaders, but the Christian bishops and deacons took only as much as was necessary for them and their families:

• “Every true prophet who wishes to abide among you is worthy of his support. In the same way, a true teacher is worthy, just as the laborer, of his support.” – Didache (c. 50-120)
• “Everyone . . . in the clerical service should . . . have time for prayers and supplications. For it is written, ‘No man that wars for God entangles himself with the affairs of this life’ [2 Tim. 2:4]. . . . But in the honor of the brethren who contribute – receiving as it were the tenths of the fruits – they should not withdraw from [these duties].” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “Let the bishop view such food and clothing sufficient as meets necessity and decency. Let him not make use of the Lord’s goods as another’s. Rather, let him use them moderately, ‘for the laborer is worthy of his reward’ [Luke 10:7]. Let him not be luxurious in diet or fond of idle furniture. . . . Let him use as a man of God those tithes and first-fruits that are given according to the command of God.” – Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390)

The purpose of church leadership

The purpose of church leadership was to keep the teachings of Jesus and the apostles and teach others to do the same. Leaders were not to invent new doctrines; rather, they were to faithfully steward the apostolic teachings:

• “In the Lord’s apostles, we possess our authority. For even they did not of themselves choose to introduce anything [new], but faithfully delivered to the nations the teaching that they had received from Christ. If, therefore, even ‘an angel from heaven should preach any other gospel’ [Gal. 1:18] than theirs, he would be called accursed by us.” – Tertullian (c. 197)
• “Nor will any one of the rulers in the churches teach doctrines different from these (however highly gifted he may be as to eloquence) – for no one is greater than the Master. . . . For the faith is ever one and the same. So he who is able to teach at great length regarding it makes no addition to it. Nor does he who can say but little diminish it.” – Irenaeus (c. 180)
• “From this, therefore, do we draw up our rule. Since the Lord Jesus Christ sent the apostles to preach, no others should be received as preachers [i.e. founding teachers] than those whom Christ appointed.” – Tertullian (c. 197)
• “True knowledge is that which consists in the doctrine of the apostles and the ancient constitution of the church throughout all the world. . . . [The church] is guarded and preserved without any forging of Scriptures by a very complete system of doctrine. She neither receives any addition to, nor does she allow any diminishing of, the truths which she believes. True knowledge also consists in reading the Word of God without falsification, but with a lawful and diligent exposition in harmony with the Scriptures – both without danger and without blasphemy. Above all, it consists in the pre-eminent gift of love, which is more precious than knowledge, more glorious than prophecy, and which excels all the other gifts of God.” – Irenaeus (c. 180)

Conclusion

The earlies churches had a very different leadership structure from most churches today. They initially had a 2-fold system of church leadership consisting of bishops and deacons, later adding presbyters around the turn of the second century. Bishops were appointed by the apostles or other bishops, and deacons were chosen by the congregation. The qualifications outlined in 1 Timothy were important in the selection of bishops and deacons; and church leaders were trained – not in systematic theology – but in character and godliness. The leaders were to be honored and respected, yet they were to view their positions of authority not as occasions to rule but as opportunities to serve. Bishops and deacons did not receive a salary; rather, they were supported from the offering collected for widows and orphans. Ultimately, the purpose of church leadership was to faithfully keep the teachings of Jesus and the apostles and teach others to do the same.