Many people today believe that, at the foundation of the world, God arbitrarily chose the people who would eventually be saved.  This view is called predestination or unconditional election and is often, although not always, adhered to as part of Calvinist doctrine.  Calvinism is usually defined by five points forming the acronym TULIP: total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, and perseverance of the saints.  The doctrine of predestination (unconditional election) is intricately related to each of the other points.

Calvinists believe that mankind is totally depraved to the point that we are unable to do anything good on our own.  However, at the foundation of the world, God arbitrarily chose (predestined, or unconditionally elected) the people who would be saved.  When the time was right for us to be saved, He opened our eyes and offered His grace which we could not refuse (irresistible grace).  The logical conclusion of God’s predestination and irresistible grace, according to Calvinists, is that we are eternally secure and cannot lose our salvation (perseverance of the saints; also called once saved, always saved).

On the other side of the discussion are those who believe that God gave each person free will to choose Him or reject Him.  While God knew beforehand who would eventually be saved, He did not predetermine their choices.  Instead, He offers salvation to all who, of their own free will, choose to follow Him.

Verses about predestination

Calvinists base the teaching of arbitrary predestination primarily on these verses:

• “For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the firstborn among many brothers.  And those whom he predestined he also called, and those whom he called he also justified, and those whom he justified he also glorified.” – Romans 8:29-30
• “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places, even as he chose us in him before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy and blameless before him.  In love he predestined us for adoption to himself as sons through Jesus Christ, according to the purpose of his will, to the praise of his glorious grace, with which he has blessed us in the Beloved.” – Ephesians 1:3-6
• “In him we have obtained an inheritance, having been predestined according to the purpose of him who works all things according to the counsel of his will, so that we who were the first to hope in Christ might be to the praise of his glory.” – Ephesians 1:11-12
• “And when the Gentiles heard this, they began rejoicing and glorifying the word of the Lord, and as many as were appointed to eternal life believed.” – Acts 13:48
• “Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to those who are elect exiles of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, in the sanctification of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and for sprinkling with his blood.” – 1 Peter 1:1-2
• “For he [God] says to Moses, ‘I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I have compassion.’  So then it depends not on human will or exertion, but on God, who has mercy.  For the Scripture says to Pharaoh, ‘For this very purpose I have raised you up, that I might show my power in you, and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth.’  So then he has mercy on whomever he wills, and he hardens whomever he wills. . . .  What if God, desiring to show his wrath and to make known his power, has endured with much patience vessels of wrath prepared for destruction, in order to make known the riches of his glory for vessels of mercy, which he has prepared beforehand for glory – even us whom he has called, not from the Jews only but also from the Gentiles?” – Romans 9:15-24

Verses about free will

Those who teach that God allows people to freely choose or reject Him base their views on these verses:

• “The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance.” – 2 Peter 3:9
• “The Spirit and the Bride say, ‘Come.’  And let the one who hears say, ‘Come.’  And let the one who is thirsty come; let the one who desires take the water of life without price.” – Revelation 22:27
• “I call heaven and earth to witness against you today, that I have set before you life and death, blessing and curse.  Therefore choose life, that you and your offspring may live, loving the LORD your God, obeying his voice and holding fast to him, for he is your life and length of days, that you may dwell in the land that the LORD swore to your fathers, to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, to give them.” – Deuteronomy 30:19-20
• “Because they hated knowledge and did not choose the fear of the LORD, would have none of my counsel and despised all my reproof, therefore they shall eat the fruit of their way, and have their fill of their own devices.” – Proverbs 1:29-31
• “He has told you, O man, what is good; and what does the LORD require of you but to do justice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God?” – Micah 6:8
• “Wash yourselves; make yourselves clean; remove the evil of your deeds from before my eyes; cease to do evil, learn to do good; seek justice, correct oppression; bring justice to the fatherless, plead the widow’s cause.  ‘Come now, let us reason together, says the LORD: though your sins are like scarlet, they shall be as white as snow; though they are red like crimson, they shall become like wool.  If you are willing and obedient, you shall eat the good of the land; but if you refuse and rebel, you shall be eaten by the sword; for the mouth of the LORD has spoken.’” – Isaiah 1:16-20

What did the early Christians believe about free will and predestination?

The early Christians unanimously believed that God calls everyone to choose Him of their own free will.  They opposed the Gnostic heresies which taught that God arbitrarily predestined those who would be saved; and they fought the secular philosophy of Stoicism, which emphasized fate rather than human responsibility.

• “We have learned from the prophets, and we hold it to be true, that punishments, chastisements, and good rewards, are rendered according to the merit of each man’s actions.  Now, if this is not so, but all things happen by fate, then neither is anything at all in our own power.  For if it is predetermined that this man will be good, and this other man will be evil, neither is the first one meritorious nor the latter man to be blamed.  And again, unless the human race has the power of avoiding evil and choosing good by free choice, they are not accountable for their actions.” – Justin Martyr (c. 160)
• “‘Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good deeds’ [Matt. 5:16]. . . . And ‘Why call me, Lord, Lord, and do not do the things that I say?’ [Luke 6:46] . . . All such passages demonstrate the independent will of man. . . . For it is in man’s power to disobey God and to forfeit what is good.” – Irenaeus (c. 180)
• “Because man is possessed of free will from the beginning, and God is possessed of free will (in whose likeness man was created), advice is always given to him to hold fast to the good, which is done through obedience to God.  God has preserved the will of man free and under his own control.  This is not merely in works, but also in faith.” – Irenaeus (c. 180)
• “Neither praises nor censures, neither rewards nor punishments, are right if the soul does not have the power of inclination and disinclination and if evil is involuntary. . . . In no respect is God the author of evil. But since free choice and inclination originate sins, . . . punishments are justly inflicted.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “The Lord clearly shows sins and transgressions to be in our own power, by prescribing modes of cure corresponding to the maladies.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “Choice depended on the man as being free.  But the gift depended on God as the Lord.  And He gives to those who are willing, are exceedingly earnest, and who ask.  So their salvation becomes their own.  For God does not compel.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “The teachings of both the Old and the New Testaments are unnecessary if a person is saved by nature (as Valentinus would have it) and is a believer and an elect man by nature (as Basilides thinks).” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “I find, then, that man was constituted free by God.  He was master of his own will and power. . . . For a law would not be imposed upon one who did not have it in his power to render that obedience which is due to law.  Nor again, would the penalty of death be threatened against sin, if a contempt of the law were impossible to man in the liberty of his will. . . . Man is free, with a will either for obedience or resistance.” – Tertullian (c. 207)
• “It is our responsibility to live virtuously.  God asks this of us as being our own doing – not as being dependent on Him, nor on any other, nor on Fate (as some think).  The prophet Micah proves this when he says: ‘If it has been announced to you, O man, what is good, or what does the Lord require of you, except to do justice and to love mercy?’ [Mic. 6:8]  Moses too, said: ‘I have placed before your face the way of life and the way of death.  Choose what is good and walk in it’ [Deut. 30:19].” – Origen (c. 225)
• “The liberty of believing or of not believing is placed in free choice.  In Deuteronomy, it says: ‘Look!  I have set before your face life and death, good and evil.  Choose for yourself life, that you may live’ [Deut. 30:19].  Also in Isaiah: ‘And if you are willing and hear me, you will eat the good of the land’ [Isa. 1:19].” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “Man was made with a free will . . . on account of his capacity of obeying or disobeying God.  For this was the meaning of the gift of free will.” – Methodius (c. 290)
• “Man received power and enslaved himself – not because he was overpowered by the irresistible tendencies of his nature. . . . For if he had been made as any of the elements of creation, . . . he would cease to receive a reward befitting deliberate choice.  Instead, he would be like an instrument of the Maker.  And it would be unreasonable for him to suffer blame for his wrong-doings.  For the real author of them would be the one by whom he is used.” – Methodius (c. 290)

What about God’s foreknowledge?

The early Christians believed that God foreknew who would accept or reject Him.  However, God’s foreknowledge in no way implies that He ordained their choices.

• “I have proved in what has been said that those who were foreknown to be unrighteous, whether men or angels, are not made wicked by God’s fault.  Rather, each man is what he will appear to be through his own fault.” – Justin Martyr (c. 160)
• “If the Word of God foretells that some angels and men will be certainly punished, it did so because it foreknew that they would be unchangeable [i.e., would remain wicked] . However, this is not because God had created them so.  For all who wish for it can obtain mercy from God if they repent.” – Justin Martyr (c. 160)
• “Those were already ordained, whom God predestined.  For He knew before the foundation of the world that they would be righteous.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “I venture to declare that as he is predestined through what he shall do and what he shall obtain, so also has he predestined himself by reason of what he knew and whom he loved.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “Neither let anyone take comfort from – or apologize for what happens from – fate. . . . For what else is fate than what God has spoken to each one of us?  Since He can foresee our constitution, He determines also the fates for us, according to the deserts and the qualities of individuals.  Thus, in our case, it is not the star under which we are born that is punished.  Rather, the particular nature of our disposition is blamed.” – Mark Minucius Felix (c. 200)
• “Saul is chosen, for he is not yet the despiser of the prophet Samuel.  Solomon is rejected, for he has now become a prey to foreign women and a slave to the idols of Moab and Sidon.  What must the Creator do, in order to escape the censure of the Marcionites [Gnostic heretics]?  Must He prematurely condemn men who are thus far correct in their conduct – because of future delinquencies?  But it is not the mark of a good God to condemn beforehand persons who have not yet deserved condemnation.” – Tertullian (c. 207)
• “In the matter of our salvation, what is done by God is infinitely greater than what is done by ourselves.  For that reason, I think, it is said that ‘it is not of him who wills, nor of him who runs, but of God, who shows mercy’ [Rom. 9:16].  For if that statement means what they [the Gnostics] imagine it means, . . . then the commandments are unnecessary.  Furthermore, it would be in vain that Paul himself blames some persons for having fallen away and praises others for having remained upright.  It was in vain that he enacted laws for the churches. . . . However, it was not in vain that Paul gave such advice, censuring some and approving others.” – Origen (c. 225)

The heretics of the early church

As discussed earlier, arbitrary predestination (the view that God chose people for salvation or condemnation unconditionally – not based on any choices they would make) was a prominent view during the first few centuries of Christianity.  However, it was promoted not by the early Christians but by the Stoics, Pharisees, and Gnostic heretics:

• “This heretic [Saturninus, one of the Gnostic teachers] was the first to declare that two kinds of men were created by the angels – one kind who are wicked and the other who are good.” – Irenaeus (c. 180)
• “[The Marcionites, another Gnostic group] say, ‘But God hardened the heart of Pharaoh and of his servants.’  Now those who allege such difficulties do not read in the Gospel the passage where the Lord replied to the disciples, when they asked Him, ‘Why do you speak in parables?’  He replied: ‘Because it is given to you to know the mystery of the kingdom of heaven.  However, I speak to them in parables so that seeing they may not see and hearing they may not hear.’ . . . So God knows the number of those who will not believe, since He foreknows all things.  So He has given them over to unbelief and turned His face away from men of this character, leaving them in the darkness that they have chosen for themselves.  So what is baffling if He gave Pharaoh and those who were with him over to their unbelief?  For they would never have believed.” – Irenaeus (c. 180)
• “It is our responsibility to live virtuously.  God asks this of us as being our own doing – not as being dependent on Him, nor on any other, nor on Fate (as some think).” – Origen (c. 225)
• “Certain ones of those [heretics] who hold different opinions misuse these passages.  They essentially destroy free will by introducing ruined natures incapable of salvation and by introducing others as being saved in such a way that they cannot be lost.” – Origen (c. 225)
• “Some persons decide that man is not possessed of free will.  Rather, they assert that he is governed by the unavoidable necessities of fate and her unwritten commands.  Such persons are guilty of impiety towards God Himself.  For they make Him out to be the cause and author of human evils.” – Methodius (c. 290)
• “Even the Jewish nation had wicked heresies. . . . There are the Pharisees, who ascribe the practice of sinners to fortune and fate.” – Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390)

Specific passages explained

Many of the same passages that are used today in support of predestination were interpreted similarly by the Gnostic teachers.  As seen in the previous quotations, the early Christians repeatedly outlined the proper interpretation of these passages.  Perhaps no writer more extensively outlined the various passages and their interpretations than did Origen in his work On the First Principles.  As seen in the following excerpts from a chapter entitled “On the Freedom of the Will,” the verses and arguments of Origen’s day were nearly identical to those used today:

• “There are, indeed, innumerable passages in the Scriptures that establish with exceeding clarity the existence of freedom of the will.  But, since certain declarations of the Old Testament and of the New lead to the opposite conclusion – namely, that it does not depend on ourselves to keep the commandments and to be saved, or to transgress them and to be lost – let us examine them one by one and see the explanations. . . . The statements regarding Pharaoh have troubled many, respecting whom God declared several times, ‘I will harden Pharaoh’s heart’ [Exo. 14:4].  For if he is hardened by God and commits sin because of being hardened, he is not the cause of sin to himself.  If so, then Pharaoh does not possess free will. . . . There is also the declaration in Ezekiel, ‘I will take away their stony hearts and will put in them hearts of flesh so that they may walk in My precepts and keep My commandments’ [Ezek. 11:19-20].  This might lead someone to think that it was God who gave the power to walk in His commandments and to keep His commandments – by His withdrawing the hindrance (the stony heart) and implanting a better heart of flesh.
• “And let us look also at the passage in the Gospel . . . ‘That seeing they might not see and hearing they may hear and not understand, lest they would be converted and their sins be forgiven them’ [John 12:40].  There is also the passage in Paul: ‘It is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of God who shows mercy’ [Rom. 9:16].  Furthermore, there are declarations in other places that ‘both to will and to do are of God’ [Phil. 2:13] and ‘that God has mercy upon whom He will have mercy; and whom He wishes, He hardens’ [Rom. 9:18]. . . . And also, ‘But who are you, O man, to talk back to God?  Will the thing formed say to him who formed it, “Why have you made me like this?”  Does the potter not have power over the clay – from the same lump to make one vessel unto honor, and another unto dishonor?’ [Rom. 9:20-21]  Now, these passages are sufficient of themselves to trouble the multitude – as if man were not possessed of free will, but as if it were God who saves and destroys whom He wills.
• “Let us begin, then, with what is said about Pharaoh – that he was hardened by God so that he would not send the people away [Exo. 4:14]. . . . Some of those who hold different opinions [the Gnostics] misuse these passages.  They essentially destroy free will by introducing ruined natures incapable of salvation and by introducing others as being saved in such a way that they cannot be lost. . . . Since we consider God to be both good and just, let us see how the good and just God could harden the heart of Pharaoh.  Perhaps by an illustration used by the apostle in the Epistle to the Hebrews, we may be able to show that, by the same operation, God can show mercy on one man while he hardens another, although not intending to harden. . . . ‘The earth,’ he says, ‘drinks in the rain that often comes upon it and produces crops to those for whom it is farmed, receiving the blessing from God.  But that which produces thorns and briers is worthless, and is in danger of being cursed. Its end is to be burned’ [Heb. 6:7-8]. . . . It may seem profane for the One who produces rain to say, ‘I produced both the fruit and the thorns that are in the earth.’  Yet, although seemingly profane, it is true.  If the rain had not fallen, there would have been neither fruit nor thorns. . . . The blessing of the rain, therefore, fell even on the unproductive land.  But since it was neglected and uncultivated, it yielded thorns and thistles.  In the same way, the wonderful acts of God are like the rain.  The differing purposes are like the cultivated and the neglected land. . . . If the sun had a voice, it might say, ‘I both liquefy and dry up.’  Although liquefying and drying are opposite things, the sun would not speak falsely on this point.  For wax is melted and mud is dried up by the same heat.  In the same way, the operation performed through the instrumentality of Moses, on the one hand, hardened Pharaoh (because of his own wickedness), and it softened the mixed Egyptian multitude, who departed with the Hebrews. . . . Now, suppose that the words the apostle addressed to sinners had been addressed to Pharaoh.  Then, the announcements made to him will be understood to have been made with particular application.  It is as to one who – according to his hardness and unrepentant heart – was treasuring up wrath for himself.  For his hardness would not have been demonstrated nor made manifest unless miracles had been performed, particularly miracles of such magnitude and importance. . . .
• “Let us also look at the declaration in Ezekiel, which says, ‘I will take away their stony hearts and will put in them hearts of flesh so that they may walk in My precepts and keep My commandments’ [Ezek. 11:19-20]. . . . If it is not we who do anything towards the production within ourselves of the heart of flesh – but if it is [all] God’s doing – it would not be our own act to live agreeably to virtue.  Rather, it would be altogether an act of divine grace.  These would be the statements of one who from the mere words annihilates free will.  But we will answer, saying that we should understand these passages in this way: It is like a man who happens to be ignorant and uneducated.  On perceiving his own defects – either because of an exhortation from his teacher, or in some other way – he spontaneously gives himself up to an instructor whom he believes can educate him and teach him virtue.  Now, on his yielding himself up, his instructor promises that he will take away the man’s ignorance and implant instruction.  Yet, it is not as if the student contributed nothing to his own training. . . . In the same way, the Word of God promises that he will take away wickedness (which it calls a stony heart) from those who come to Him – but not if they are unwilling to come.  It is only if they submit themselves to the Physician of the sick. . . .
• “After this, there is the passage from the Gospel where the Savior said, . . . ‘Seeing, they may not see, and hearing, they may not understand, lest they would be converted and their sins be forgiven them’ [John 12:40].  Now, our opponent [the Gnostic] will say . . . it is not within the power of such ones to be saved.  If that were so, we were not possessed of free will as regards salvation and destruction. . . . When discussing the subject of Pharaoh, we asserted also that sometimes a rapid cure is not advantageous for who are healed, if, after being seized by troublesome diseases, they should easily get rid of those by which they had been entangled. For, by despising the evil as being easily cured and not being on their guard against falling into it a second time, they will be involved in it again.  Wherefore, in the case of such people, the everlasting God . . . delays sending them more rapid assistance, and, so to speak, in helping them does not help, the latter course being to their advantage.  It is probable, then, that the Savior . . . had foreseen them as persons who were not likely to prove steady in their conversion, even if they heard the words that were spoken more clearly.  For that reason, they were treated this way by the Savior. . . . Otherwise, after a rapid conversion and healing through obtaining remission of sins, they would despise the wounds of their wickedness as being slight and easy to heal.  As a result, they would again quickly relapse into them. . . .
• “Let us look next at the passage: ‘It is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of God who shows mercy’ [Rom. 9:16].  For they who find fault say: If ‘it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of God who shows mercy,’ salvation does not depend upon ourselves, but upon the arrangement made by Him who has formed us as we are. . . . Solomon says in the book of Psalms (for the Song of Degrees is his, from which we shall quote the words): ‘Unless the LORD builds the house, they labor in vain who build it; unless the LORD guards the city, the watchman stays awake in vain’ [Ps. 127:1].  He does not dissuade us from building, or teach us not to keep watch in order to guard the city of our soul.  Rather, he shows that what is built without God and does not receive a guard from Him is built in vain and watched for no purpose. . . . If we were to say that such a building is not the work of the builder, but of God, and that it was not owing to the successful effort of the watcher, but of the God who is over all, . . . we would not be wrong.  It is understood that something was also done by human means, but the benefit is gratefully referred to God who brought it to pass. . . . These things are accomplished with the assistance of God.  It is well said that, ‘It is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of God who shows mercy.’ . . . What was said [earlier] regarding husbandry is actually recorded: ‘I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the increase.  So then neither he who plants is anything, nor he who waters, but God who gives the increase’ [1 Cor. 3:6-7].  Now we could not piously assert that the production of full crops was the work of the husbandman, or of him that watered.  It is the work of God.  So also our own perfection is brought about, not as if we ourselves did nothing; for it is not completed by us, but God produces the greater part of it. . . .
• “‘Shall the thing formed say to him who formed it, “Why have you made me this way?”  Has not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto honor, and another unto dishonor?’ [Rom. 9:20-21] . . . Now we must ask the person who uses these passages whether it is possible to conceive that the apostle contradicts himself.  I presume that no one will venture to say it is. If, then, the apostle does not utter contradictions, how can he, according to the person who so understands him, justly find fault with anyone? . . . The apostle in one place does not pretend that becoming a vessel unto honor or dishonor depends upon God, but refers back the whole to ourselves, saying, ‘Therefore if anyone cleanses himself from the latter, he will be a vessel for honor, sanctified and useful for the Master, prepared for every good work’ [2 Tim. 2:21].  Elsewhere [in Romans 9], he does not even pretend that it is dependent upon ourselves, but appears to attribute the whole to God; . . . and as his statements are not contradictory, we must reconcile them, and extract one complete statement from both. . . . Our own power does not compel us to make progress – apart from the knowledge of God.  Nor does the knowledge of God do so, unless we ourselves also contribute something to the good result.”

God’s sovereignty

Although the early Christians strongly believed in individual free will, they also upheld the Biblical view of God’s sovereignty:

• “Nothing happens without the will of the Lord of the universe.  It remains to say that such things happen without the prevention of God.  For this alone saves both the providence and the goodness of God.  We must not, therefore, think that He actively produces afflictions. . . . Rather, we must be persuaded that He does not prevent those beings who cause them.  Yet, He overrules for good the crimes of His enemies.” – Clement of Alexandria (c. 195)
• “Some things seem to indicate the will of God, seeing that they are allowed by Him.  However, it does not necessarily follow that everything that is permitted proceeds out of the unqualified and absolute will of Him who permits it.” – Tertullian (c. 212)
• “The result of all the preceding remarks is to show that all the occurrences in the world . . . are not indeed brought about by God.  Yet, neither do they happen without Him.  For He not only does not prevent those wicked and opposing powers who are desirous to bring these things about, but He even permits them to do so. . . . Therefore, Holy Scripture teaches us to receive all that happens as though sent by God, knowing that without Him no event occurs.” – Origen (c. 225)
• “‘And allow us not to be led into temptation’ [Matt. 6:13].  In these words, it is shown that the adversary can do nothing against us unless God has first permitted it.  So all of our fear, devotion, and obedience should be turned towards God.  For in our temptations, nothing is permitted to do evil unless power is given from Him. . . . But power is given to evil ones against us according to our sins.” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “This pestilence and plague, which seems horrible and deadly, searches out the righteousness of each one. . . . It reveals whether those who are in health will tend the sick.  It reveals whether relatives affectionately love their kindred.  It reveals whether masters pity their languishing servants.” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “He allows these things to happen for this reason: that our faith may be tested.” – Cyprian (c. 250)
• “We should not think that such an inexhaustible providence of God does not reach to even the very least of things.  For the Lord says, ‘One of two sparrows will not fall without the will of the Father.  For even the very hairs of your head are all numbered’ [Matt. 10:29-30].  His care and providence did not permit even the clothes of the Israelites to be worn out. . . . Since He embraces all things and contains all things, . . . His care consequently extends to every single thing.  For His providence encompasses the whole, whatever it is.” – Novatian (c. 235)

Conclusion

While the early Christians believed in the sovereignty of God, they had no concept of arbitrary predestination.  To them, such a concept would completely oppose free will and nullify the entire Scriptures.  Rather, they believed that God knew beforehand who would accept Him or reject Him, but foreknowledge in no way implies foreordination.

The word predestine and its variants are used only 4 times in Scripture (twice in Romans 8:29-30 and twice in Ephesians 1; also Acts 4:28 and 1 Corinthians 2:7 in some translations) and 38 times in the 10-volume Ante-Nicene Fathers. Predestination (in any form) was not one of the core topics of early Christianity, yet it is a core topic in many circles today.

The idea of predestination has its roots– not in early Christianity – but rather with the Stoics, Pharisees, and Gnostics.  As we seek to live out the commands of Christ and teach others to do the same, let us beware lest we are guilty, as were the Pharisees and scribes in Jesus’ day, of “teaching as doctrines the commandments of men” (Matthew 15:9).